The materials of the cover vary widely, and comprise most kinds of leather, parchment, vellum, bookbinders cloth, velvet, needlework, wood, and imitations of different kinds, such as leatherette and feltine.

Amongst the leather we have various kinds of morocco, goatskin, or imitation morocco, such as "levant," calf of different kinds, and imitation calfs, roan, sheep, and occasionally russia never hog skin.

Whole-binding -If the book is to be entirely covered with leather, the skin, whether of calf or morocco, is laid down upon a large smooth board, with the "flesh" or rough side upwards. Then the book is grasped by the fore edge of the leaves with the left hand, the mill board hanging loose, and lowered down on the leather, so that the book rests on it and the boards lie on it flat (Fig. 109). The leather can now be cut with a sharp pointed knife round the book, allowing enough all round to turn in, which may be about ¾ in. for an octavo, and less or more for smaller or larger books. Next, the exact size of the book may be marked on the leather with a soft black lead pencil. Some binders keep paper or millboard patterns for the covers of all sizes of books, and cut out by these. The edges of the leather must now be "pared," "skived," or shaved down all round, so that they will cause no unsightly protuberances when the leather is pasted on. The part between the pencil marks and the edge is the portion to be pared. The operation is performed with a long sharp knife, on a marble slab, a bit of lithographic stone, or a piece of plate glass. The French paring knives, sold by Messrs. Eadie, of Great Queen-street, Lincoln's Inn (whose name we have previously mentioned), are by far the best in the market.

The leather is laid on the slab with the grain side downwards, and' drawn tight by the fingers and thumb of the left hand, while the blade of the knife is laid almost flat upon the edge of the leather, and gradually pushed forward by the right hand. More or less leather will be removed according to the angle at which the knife is held, and if it be held too upright it will go through the leather before the edge is reached, and make bad work. In setting the knife upon the oilstone, the" burr" should be left on the side which is to go towards the leather in paring; for, if the burr be on the other side, the knife will slip off the leather or not cut.

What is especially necessary, when some skill is attained, is to take off a level shaving of the right thickness, and not to leave a series of ridges on the leather by uneven cutting.

To overcome some of the difficulty which morocco and roan present in paring, it is the usual practice to damp the edges of the cover for a little way in, with a sponge and water. The same plan is occasionally practiced with rough calf, that is to say, calf which is dressed inside out, so that, when the book is covered, the "flesh" side is placed outwards. This is usually a "stationery" binding on account books, but occasionally law books or books of reference are bound in "rough" calf. Great care must be taken in paring the back, both at the head and tail, or when turned in the effect will be bad. It requires great practice to pare leather properly.

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